Fifteenth-Century Italian Card Games

Overview

Tarot cards originated in 15th-century northern Italy as a trick-taking card game played by the nobility. Far from being mystical divination tools, the earliest tarot decks were luxury playing cards commissioned by wealthy Italian families — particularly the Visconti and Sforza dynasties of Milan. The game itself, known as trionfi (triumphs) and later tarocchi, was a product of the vibrant court culture of Renaissance Italy.

The Birth of Tarot: Northern Italy, c. 1420–1450

Geographic Origins

The tarot game was invented in northern Italy, most likely in Milan or Ferrara, during the second quarter of the 15th century (approximately 1420–1450).

"In the Renaissance tarot cards were not the paraphernalia of fortune tellers but were used in a normal card game enjoyed by the nobility. The game, the rules of which have been lost, was invented in northern Italy, probably in Milan or Ferrara, in the second quarter of the fifteenth century."
— The Morgan Library & Museum, "Visconti-Sforza Tarot Cards"
Source: https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/158525

Precursors: Playing Cards from the Islamic East

Before tarot existed, standard playing cards had already arrived in Europe from the Islamic world. These cards featured four suits and numbered cards, forming the basis of what would become the Minor Arcana. The innovation of tarot was the addition of a fifth suit — the trumps (trionfi) — which could beat any card in the other four suits.

"This dissertation analyzes the development and play of tarot cards (carte da trionfi) in fifteenth-century Northern Italy, beginning with their origins in playing card decks imported from the Islamic East, then moving to the popularity of tarot decks at the courts of Milan and Ferrara."
— Penn State University, "Carte da Trionfi: The Development of Tarot in 15th-Century Italy"
Source: https://openpublishing.psu.edu/ahd/content/carte-da-trionfi-development-tarot-15th-century-italy

The German "Karnöffel" Connection

Some scholars point to a German card game called Karnöffel (dating to the 1420s) as a precursor or parallel development. Karnöffel featured certain cards with special powers that could beat others — a concept similar to the trump mechanism in tarot. However, the Italian trionfi game developed its own distinct character with its full set of 22 illustrated trump cards.

"Italian decks are the oldest examples that we have of these cards. There were other and maybe older kinds of trump cards that were being developed in Europe as well as early as the 1420s — a German card game called Carnival featured these sorts of trump cards."
— YouTube, "A Brief History of Tarot Cards | Stuff You Missed in History Class"
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgUcPJYspzs

The Visconti-Sforza Decks

The Oldest Surviving Tarot Cards

The Visconti-Sforza Tarot refers collectively to approximately 15 incomplete decks from the mid-15th century, now scattered across museums, libraries, and private collections worldwide. No complete deck has survived.

"The Visconti-Sforza Tarot is used collectively to refer to incomplete sets of approximately 15 decks from the middle of the 15th century, now located in various museums, libraries, and private collections around the world. No complete deck has survived."
— Wikipedia, "Visconti-Sforza Tarot"
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visconti-Sforza_Tarot

The Three Main Collections

The most complete set of Visconti-Sforza cards is divided among three collections:

"Fifteenth-century painted tarot cards of Italian origin are exceedingly rare, and no complete deck has survived. The thirty-five cards in the Morgan Library, twenty-six in the Accademia Carrara in Bergamo, and thirteen owned by the Colleoni family of Bergamo form the most complete and one of the most important sets known."
— The Morgan Library & Museum, "Visconti-Sforza Tarot Cards"
Source: https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/158525

Dating the Decks

The oldest known tarot deck — the incomplete Visconti di Modrone deck — has been dated to between 1437 and 1442 through advanced imaging techniques and watermark analysis conducted by researchers at Yale University.

"Researchers from Yale managed to discern stationers' watermarks to definitively date one of the world's oldest tarot decks to an impressively narrow range, between 1437 and 1442."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

Commission and Patronage

The Visconti-Sforza decks were commissioned by members of the ruling families of Milan. The most famous deck was likely made for Bianca Maria Visconti and Francesco Sforza, whose betrothal (1432) and marriage (1441) united the two powerful families.

"This deck may have been made for Bianca Maria Visconti and Francesco Sforza, whose betrothal (1432) and marriage (1441) united the two families. In any case the emblems of both families, intermingled on the cards, reveal that they were made for some member of the Visconti-Sforza family."
— The Morgan Library & Museum, "Visconti-Sforza Tarot Cards"
Source: https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/158525

"Between 1442-1447 Filippo Maria Visconti commissioned one of the first of many colourful decks to be hand painted and designed with historical medieval and mythological themes."
— Michelle Johnston, "The Tarocchi Players - Renaissance Italy and the History of the Tarot"
Source: https://www.michellejohnston.life/episodes/the-tarocchi-players-renaissance-italy-and-the-history-of-the-tarot

Artists

The earliest Visconti-Sforza cards have been attributed to:

• Bonifacio Bembo (active 1440–1480), a Cremonese painter and illuminator
• Francesco Zavattari (active 1417–1483), an older illuminator in whose circle Bembo worked
• Antonio Cicognara, who painted six replacement cards at the end of the 15th century

"All three of the earliest decks have been attributed to the Cremonese painter and illuminator Bonifacio Bembo (active 1440-80). More recently, however, the Morgan deck has been given to Francesco Zavattari (active 1417-83)."
— The Morgan Library & Museum, "Visconti-Sforza Tarot Cards"
Source: https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/158525

Physical Characteristics

The Visconti-Sforza cards were:

• Hand-painted and gilded on heavy cardboard
• Approximately 173 × 87 mm in size
• Featuring gold and silver leaf backgrounds
• Depicting heraldic emblems of the Visconti and Sforza families
• Painted with tempera and gold on prepared ground

"35 cards : heavy cardboard, illuminated ; 173 x 87 mm"
— The Morgan Library & Museum, "Visconti-Sforza Tarot Cards"
Source: https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/158525

The Game of Trionfi/Tarocchi

How the Game Worked

The original tarot game was a trick-taking game (similar to modern bridge or whist). The 22 trump cards (trionfi) could beat any card in the four regular suits. Players would try to win tricks by playing the highest card, with trumps having special power.

"Tarot is a game of trick taking, as the many trump cards clearly indicate, and even though there are many variations (mostly minor), the rules of the game likely have not changed significantly since the 15th century."
— The Metropolitan Museum of Art, "Before Fortune-Telling: The History and Structure of Tarot Cards"
Source: https://www.metmuseum.org/perspectives/tarot-2

Evidence of Actual Use

Physical examination of the Visconti-Sforza cards confirms they were used for gameplay, not merely displayed as art:

• Worn edges from handling
• Lost pigments from repeated use
• Separating layers of the cardboard
• Replacement cards painted to substitute damaged originals

"Pozzi's research has shown that the surviving cards bear signs of regular use: worn edges, lost pigments, separating layers. Her lab has confirmed that several cards are replacements, suggesting that their owners wanted a full deck, and corroborating the idea that these cards were meant for gaming."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

The Sola Busca Tarot

The Sola Busca tarot, dating to the late 15th century, is the earliest complete 78-card tarot deck that survives today. Unlike the Visconti-Sforza decks, it features entirely different imagery in the Major Arcana — obscure figures from antiquity and famous villains like the Roman Emperor Nero.

"What had struck me about it was just how unlike the modern tarot it is. In place of the standard major arcana is a series of entirely different and unsettling images: obscure figures from antiquity or famous villains, like the Roman Emperor Nero, reveling in the burning of babies."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

The Court Culture of Renaissance Italy

Why Tarot Emerged When and Where It Did

Tarot emerged during a specific moment in European history when:

• Wealthy Italian courts were centers of artistic patronage
• The nobility sought sophisticated entertainment
• Classical mythology and allegory were fashionable themes
• Cross-cultural trade brought new ideas and materials

"After all, tarot emerged during a very specific point in European history, when the wealthy courts of Renaissance Italy were retaining armies of scholars to recover hidden wisdom from ancient texts."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

Carnival Processions and the Trump Sequence

The specific order of the Major Arcana may have been inspired by Renaissance carnival processions — dramatic parades featuring costumed performers acting out stories from folklore and religion. These symbolic pageants included figures like those seen on the tarot cards.

"The specific order of the Major Arcana may have been based on Renaissance carnival processions – dramatic parades featuring costumed performers acting out stories from folklore and religion. These symbolic pageants would include figures like those seen on the tarot cards, such as the Devil and themes such as Justice."
— Victoria and Albert Museum, "A history of tarot cards"
Source: https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/tarot-cards

The "Scala Mistica" Theory

Some scholars argue that the trump sequence was designed as a moral teaching tool — a "mystical ladder" (scala mistica) that instructed players in ethical precepts, or perhaps satirized those precepts.

"Some scholars, like the tarot historian Andrea Vitali, argue the figures on such cards were meant to offer a scala mistica, or mystical ladder, instructing wayward gamblers in moral and ethical precepts—or else perhaps satirizing those precepts by allowing fools and lovers to trump popes."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

Spread Beyond Milan

Ferrara and Bologna

While Milan produced the most famous early decks, tarot also flourished in:

• Ferrara: Another major center of tarot production and play
• Bologna: Developed its own variant (the tarocchino bolognese) with 62 cards
• Florence: Created the expanded minchiate deck with 97 cards

From Italy to France

By the 17th and 18th centuries, tarot production moved to France, where it became known as tarot (from the Italian tarocchi). French manufacturers produced cheaper, mass-produced decks that spread the game throughout Europe.

"In the centuries following the production of Visconti's exquisite deck, tarot's popularity as a game increased, and its production moved to France sometime in the 17th and 18th centuries."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

The Egyptian Origin Myth (Debunked)

In 1781, Antoine Court de Gébelin published a speculative account claiming tarot originated in ancient Egypt as the "Book of Thoth." This claim has been thoroughly debunked by modern scholarship.

"The astrological use of tarot cards derives from scholarly misinformation published by Antoine Court de Gébelin in 1781. He traced their origin to ancient Egypt, identifying them with the Book of Thoth, the scribe of the Egyptian gods."
— The Morgan Library & Museum, "Visconti-Sforza Tarot Cards"
Source: https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/158525

"In reality, 'there is absolutely no evidence for Roma in the origin of tarot cards, or for any significant role in their spread,' says Egil Asprem, a professor at Stockholm University."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

Debates and Different Perspectives

Milan vs. Ferrara: Where Was Tarot Invented?

View 1: Milan

The Visconti-Sforza decks (the oldest surviving examples) were made in Milan, and the earliest documentary evidence points to Milanese patronage.

View 2: Ferrara

Some scholars argue that Ferrara may have been equally important or even primary, based on documentary references to "trionfi" cards in Ferrarese court records from the 1440s.

"The game, the rules of which have been lost, was invented in northern Italy, probably in Milan or Ferrara, in the second quarter of the fifteenth century."
— The Morgan Library & Museum, "Visconti-Sforza Tarot Cards"
Source: https://www.themorgan.org/manuscript/158525

Were Early Decks Art Objects or Playing Cards?

View 1: Primarily art objects

For many years, historians speculated that decks as unusually fine as the Visconti-Sforza may have been meant purely as art or collector's items.

View 2: Functional playing cards

Modern physical analysis has shown clear signs of use — worn edges, replacement cards — confirming these were functional game pieces, albeit expensive ones.

"For many years, historians speculated that a deck as unusually fine as this one may have simply been meant as a piece of art. Yet Pozzi's research has shown that the surviving cards bear signs of regular use."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

Did Tarot Contain Hidden Esoteric Meaning from the Start?

View 1: Purely a game

The mainstream scholarly position is that tarot was invented as a card game, and esoteric meanings were layered on centuries later.

View 2: Esoteric undertones from the beginning

Some scholars note that the Renaissance courts were deeply invested in recovering ancient wisdom, and the choice of imagery (classical mythology, moral allegory) suggests the creators intended more than mere entertainment.

"The occultist Peter Mark Adams called the deck 'stubbornly and irredeemably odd,' writing that 'even after prolonged study, the deck retains its strangeness.' For Adams, that oddness suggests that there is a foundational purpose to these cards other than simple entertainment."
— Smithsonian Magazine, "The Colorful History of Tarot Is as Mesmerizing as the Decks Themselves"
Source: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/colorful-history-tarot-mesmerizing-decks-themseles-180986811

Summary Timeline

Sources consulted: The Morgan Library & Museum (themorgan.org), Smithsonian Magazine (smithsonianmag.com), Victoria and Albert Museum (vam.ac.uk), Wikipedia, Penn State University, Michelle Johnston / Muse Italia, Trionfi.com, YouTube (Stuff You Missed in History Class).